An adhesive composition described herein comprises an aqueous solvent； and a population of first nanoparticles dispersed in the aqueous solvent, the first nanoparticles comprising a negative or positive charge, and an average size in three dimensions of 1 nm to 1000 nm. In some embodiments, a population of second nanoparticles is dispersed in the aqueous solvent, the second nanoparticles comprises a negative or positive charge opposite the charge of the population of first nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the population of first nanoparticles comprise an average first size in three dimensions, and the population of second nanoparticles comprise an average second size in three dimensions that is different from the average first size of the first nanoparticles.
