An actuation system includes a virtual or computer-modeled portion that is coupled to a physical portion. The virtual portion is a computer model that models or otherwise simulates a function or action, such as a physiological function or action, including for example an action potential, a calcium transient, and/or a chemical reaction. The computer model may model or simulate a chemical action, a mechanical action (such as movement of a wing) or any other action. The virtual portion drives or controls one or more physical actuators, which can be sized on a microscopic scale, such as on a nanometer scale. The actuation system can be used as or part of an artificial anatomical structure or organ, such as an artificial heart.
