Disclosed herein in one aspect is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a plurality of neoantigenic peptides and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, each neoantigenic peptide comprising a tumor-specific neoepitope capable of binding to an HLA protein in a subject, each tumor-specific neoepitope comprising a tumor-specific mutation present in a tumor, wherein (a) the composition comprises neoantigenic peptides comprising tumor-specific mutations present in at least 1% of subjects in a population of subjects suffering from cancer； (b) the composition comprises neoantigenic peptides comprising tumor-specific neoepitopes which bind to HLA proteins present in at least 5% of subjects in the population； and (c) the composition comprises at least one neoantigenic peptide capable of eliciting an immune response against a tumor present in at least 5% of the subjects in the population of subjects suffering from cancer.
