Provided herein are recombinant cells (e.g., recombinant bacteria or plant, insect, mammalian, and yeast cells) containing a nucleic acid encoding a CYP97A protein or a nucleic acid encoding a CYP97B protein a nucleic acid encoding a CYP97C protein a nucleic acid encoding a geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase protein a nucleic acid encoding a phytoene synthase protein a nucleic acid encoding a phytoene desaturase protein a nucleic acid encoding a lycopene β-cyclase protein and a nucleic acid encoding a lycopene ε-cyclase protein. Also provided are methods of producing lutein that include culturing these recombinant cells (e.g., recombinant bacteria and yeast cells), and methods of generating these recombinant cells (e.g., recombinant bacteria and yeast cells). Also provided is lutein produced by these methods, and pharmaceutical compositions, food supplements, food products, and cosmetic compositions that contain lutein produced by these methods.
