A direct current electro-osmotic pump comprising:a porous, platinum-free cathodea porous, platinum-free anode anda porous ceramic membrane between the cathode and the anode,wherein at least a part of the surface of the membrane is in physical contact with the anode, and at least a part of the opposite side of the membrane is in physical contact with the cathode, andwherein the pump is configured to operate at a potential difference (V) between the anode and the cathode of V≦3 volts without producing bubbles visible to the naked eye.
