Maternal adaptive immunity conveys temporary humoral immune protection to neonates. The disclosure demonstrates the influence of the in utero environment on adult atherosclerosis and provides evidence for persistent effects of maternal immunization on adult immune responses. The disclosure provides methods and compositions useful for immunization and more particularly for actively modulating the fetal programming of the immune system for the purpose of preventing or treating immune-modulated diseases. The disclosure also provides interventions to protect offspring and immunized subjects against insulin resistance.
